Csr And Organizational Leadership And The Implications For...

Whether it is industry to industry, business to business or person to person, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) means many different things to different people (Campbell, J. L., 2007). The literature is full of a wide range of definitions and interpretations of what CSR actually is and how and why it is increasingly being seen as a key part of organisational strategy. This paper will critically analyse and discuss some of the key debates around CSR and will demonstrate the linkages that exist between CSR and organisational leadership and the implications for leadership when considering the social responsibilities of an organisation. This discussion will also look at the implications of CSR for the local government sector, a sector that can be said exits for the purpose of improving the life of its citizens. This discussion will begin with one of the earliest and most quoted critiques of CSR by Milton Friedman (1970). Friedman’s view was that an employee has a responsibility to conduct the business according to the owner’s desire, which is generally to make as much money as possible, while conforming to the basic rules of society, both those embodied in law and those embodied in ethical custom (Friedman, M., 1970). Friedman goes on to state that if a person has responsibilities to his family, his city, his church etc. then these are the social responsibilities of individuals, not business (Friedman, M., 1970). According to Friedman, nothing that takes the focus away fromShow MoreRelatedTransformational Leadership And Transformational Leaders1345 Words   |  6 Pagesadoption of the innovation and transformational leadership?† The purpose of the current study is to conduct a rapid assessment of the innovation literature to explore the extent to which transformational leadership influences diffusion and adoption of innovation and to provide several topics for future research. 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Whereas, (Beebe, 2012), writes that Drucker operates from a moral standpoint. According to (Beebe, 2012), Drucker valued the integrity, trust, temperance, loyalty, and character of leadership and that business ethics is not a consideration. Social Responsibility – Employees, Stakeholders, Society According to (Cohen, 2009), Drucker’s introduction of the social responsibility concept of business was something totally new (Cohen, 2009)Read MoreCase Analysis: John Mackey, Whole Foods Market Essay examples1702 Words   |  7 PagesEric Smith Christine Hill Organizational behavior January 24, 2013 Case Analysis: John Mackey, Whole Foods Market 1. What role, if any, does McGregor’s Theory Y play at Whole Foods? Explain. According to Kreitner and Kinicki (2013) McGregor contrasted two views on human nature by insisting that Theory Y assumes that people are more positive at work, and believed managers could accomplish more by viewing employees as such (p.9). The other outdated theory, is Theory X, which is a moreRead MoreBusiness Ethics Annotated Bibliography2636 Words   |  11 Pagesethics and organizational architecture. Journal of Banking and Finance, 26 (9), 1821-1835. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-4266(02)00193-0 This journal implies that there is potential for a balance between economics and business ethics in several instances. One instance is found in the presumptions of how organizational members make decisions and from what ethical foundation they are considered? In addition, the importance of the union between business ethics and organizational structure

The Dna And The Nucleus Of Cell York - 972 Words

Danny the DNA lived with Mack the mRNA in the nucleus of Cell York, they were brothers, after all. Danny was always a stay-at-home molecule, while Mack was always interacting with others, especially his coworkers Tony the tRNA and Rick the rRNA. Even though Danny looked lazy, he always was the center of attention within the nucleic brothers. Everyone made up stories of how he did all the work in the nucleus, while Mack apparently did little to nothing and, before the evolution of Cell York, this was true. The main job the nucleic brothers has were to code and send information to the ribosomes in order to make proteins for Cell York businesses. Before the evolution, Danny coded and sent the information to make proteins, while Mack was only a cheerleader on the side. However, when Danny had a break from delivering, he stayed in bed all day on his laptop, only coding what he needed to do. He soon never left the house, all his necessities were in the nucleus. As time went on, Danny grew larger than he used to be, and less active. His double helixes doubled in size, as well as his bases. Now that the break is over, Danny will have to go back to his job, but with great difficulty. â€Å"Hey Dan, your break is over, you need to send all those codes!† Mack yelled as he prepared Danny’s supplies. â€Å"But I don’t want to!† Danny whined, â€Å"let the other guy do his job,† and went back to sleep. â€Å"That guy is gone now, it’s your job to deliver codes now!† Mack became frustrated and kept onShow MoreRelatedViruses : A Infectious Agent That Replicates Only Inside The Living Cells Of Other Organisms915 Words   |  4 PagesA virus is a microscopic infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of other organisms. Viruses can infect all types of life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria and archaea. A 2013 study done by Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health at Columbia University in New York estimates that there are over 320,000 mammalian viruses. There are many different ways to contract a virus including: airborne, bodily fluids and ingestionRead MoreThe Differences Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Organisms Essay1696 Words   |  7 Pagesdeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and its replication, metabolic processes, protein synthesis and ribonucleic acid (RNA) processing. The cell is the most basic unit of life, defined as â€Å"The fundamental ... structural and functional unit of all living organisms† (Oxford University Press, 2008). The prokaryotic cell is typically composed of a plasma membrane and cell wall, containing within it the cytosol and a structure known as the nucleoid. 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(Alberts et al., 2010a) The genesRead More Cloning: What is the right thing to do? Essay1362 Words   |  6 Pagesnbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Cloning is the process of extracting the DNA out of a donor’s cell and implanting this genetic code in another cell in order to grow a being with identical genes, thus virtually duplicating the donor. The term clone refers to the new being that has identical genes to the donor. There are three types of cloning, when the media reports on cloning they are generally referring to reproductive cloning. There is also recombinant DNA Technology, and therapeutic cloning (McGee, Human CloningRead MoreAnimal And Bacterial Cells :2387 Words   |  10 PagesFitzsimmons-Doolan Composition ENGL 1301 Nov 20, 2014 Animal and Bacterial Cells Cells are generic term used in many aspects of the life. Particularly, it is used more in the biology science field, because the biology science relays on this small unit to study the other concepts. Cells are something infinite in the smallness. For the time being, we need to study the cells and everything related to it. In fact, what is the cell? Or where are the Cells located? These two questions are from the first questions thatRead MoreAnimal And Bacterial Cells : Different Aspects Of The Life2704 Words   |  11 PagesBacterial Cells Cells are generic term used in many aspects of the life. Particularly, it is used more in the biology science field, due to the reliance of the biology science on this small unit to study the other concepts. In addition, cells are something infinite in the tiny. According to (Wasserman et al 2009) clarified that the cell is a little, and essential unit does many functions, and it consists from several teeny parts within its members. For the time being, we need to study the cells, and everythingRead MoreMeiosis and Mitosis Essay example752 Words   |  4 Pagesreproduction takes place. 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Because the disease was limited to the gay male population, and little was known about it besides the fact that it targeted the immune system, it was called GRID among the media standing for Gay- Related Immune Deficiency. By years

British Airways Stakeholders - Market Structure & Regulations - Sample

Question: Write a report on British Airways by providing a thorough analysis of the Business Environment in which the company operates. Answer: Types of organization There are different types of organization and the structure of the organization is completely dependent on the type of the organization. Few of the types of organization are discussed below. The formal organization will help all the activities to be very well planned. If an employee in the organization is planning to get something done then it will include lot of formalities. A lot of formalities will be in place so that the employees can follow a process. Apart from that, a formal organization will also be well guided by the set of legal formalities that they need to follow so that all the activities are well planned in advance. Informal organization is another type of organization and this is generally formed by a small group of people. This organization is not dependent on the legal formalities or processes. This is more dependent on the trust that members in the organization share with that of each other. Grape vine communication system is followed in the organization and it is considered to be perfect only when the number of employees in the organization is very less. Matrix organization is the third type of the organization. In this organization, every employee in the organization will receive commands from one senior. This helps the employees to be clear regarding what needs to be done and what needs to be avoided. The processes are clearly defined and the employees are also aware of the seniority in the organization (Coppola 2001). Project organization is another type of organization wherein the management of the organization will be sure regarding what they need to do and the also the ultimate goal of the organization. This organization is completely dependent on people who are skilled and also people who have the capability in them to help the organization to reach the ultimate goal. Virtual organization is something that is dependent on the modern technologies that are widely available for the purpose of communication. This organization operates exactly like a formal organization but the employees in the organization may be present at different locations and they will communicate with each other via various communication technologies (Otley 2013). Objectives of British Airways and Stakeholders Short term objective of British Airways The main objective of British Airways is to focus on aviation business, help people to move from one location to that of another and they will also help their customers in also moving the cargo. The organization will also look for ways by which they can develop new products and services so that the satisfaction of the customers can be increased (King 2001). Long term objectives Most of the countries in the world are aware about the presence of British airways but the management of BA wants to be an organization that is known throughout the world. They will try to motivate people from different corners of the world so that they can opt for BA whenever they are planning to fly. The organization will also look for ways by which they can justify the premium price that the customers will be paying. This will motivate the customers to pay rather than that of thinking that the airways are charging extra (Segal 2009). Stakeholders and the impact of challenge on them The challenges that are faced by the organization will create an impact on the stakeholders. Few of the challenges that create an impact on the shareholders of the business are discussed below. If the price of the services associated with flying with British Airways is increased then this will directly create an impact on the customers. The customers will have to shell out more from their pockets and hence, there are also possibilities that the customers may opt for some other airways over BA. It is very important to consider the expectations that the employees have from the organization. If the organization doesnt look for ways to satisfy the requirements of the employees then the employees may leave the company. It will be very expensive for the company to train the new resources and hence, it is always better to retain the existing customers. Government will come up with various norms so that the company can be in line with the requirements of the society. It is the responsibility of the management to comply with the government policies. If the company doesnt comply with the government policies then they will be fined and in severe situation, the organization will also be forced to shut down (Eugene 2003). Economic systems There are different types of economic systems in the world and each economic system will create a different impact on the British Airways. Each economy has its own advantages and disadvantages so it is the responsibility of the management of British Airways to make decisions accordingly. The impact of each economic system is discussed below. Command economies believe in understanding the demand of the product or service and then they accordingly plan their production. This economic system does create an impact on the business of British Airways. British Airways can increase the number of trips during the peak season. During the peak hours, British Airways can also hire more contract employees so that they dont end up paying to excess employees, throughout the year. Free Market economy is an economy wherein the government doesnt interfere in the decisions of the business. Such an economy doesnt exist for British Airways. The decisions of British Airways need to be in line with the government policies of the particular government. Mixed economy is being adopted by many countries. In this kind of economy, the government makes regulations and at the same time, it gives freedom to the organization as well to make decisions. British Airways believes in working with such economies rather than that of forming their own policies. Transition economy is the economy in the form of transition from one economy to that of another. These kind of economies can be really problematic to the business as they may not have a stable policy and hence, businesses will suffer. Challenges in dealing with the stakeholders There are different group of stakeholders for British Airways and each group of stakeholder has a different of expectation from the company. Few of the stakeholders and the challenges associated with various stakeholders are discussed below. First and foremost, British Airways is concerned about the customers who like to travel through British Airways. Providing value for money is one of the most important things that the organization does. British Airways provides premium service to the customers so that the customers are satisfied with the services and products that they receive from BA (Dana 1999). The second customers would be employees. Employee satisfaction survey is conducted at regular intervals so that the employees can express their expectations to the management. The management analysis the expectations of the employees and then change in the policy are made accordingly. This allows the employees to feel important while they are associated with the organization. Government of different countries is concerned about the policies and regulations that are associated with the organization. British Airways takes a note of various policies that they need to follow in each of the country so that they can fulfill all the requirements and at the same time, this will help the company to be free from all the legal complexities. Apart from that, British Airways has a legal department that will take care of the legal formalities that they need to complete (Prassl 2011). Impact of regulatory, competitive policies and legal changes in the airline industry The change in the regulatory policies, competitive policies and the legal policies creates a direct impact in the airline industry. To stay ahead in the competition, British Airways also needs to fulfill that. Few of the places wherein one can see the impact of change are discussed below. As British Airways is a government establishment and hence, any change in the regulatory policy will have to reflect on the policies of British Airways as well. If the wage policy of the government employees to be changes then British Airways will have to change the wage structure of all the employees in the British Airways. This will create a huge impact on the management and also the budget that has been prepared for the particular year (Swickard 2003). Apart from sticking to the government policies those are in place, the management of British Airways also needs to keep a track of the other companies which are considered as a competitor by British Airways. If one of the airways reduces the price of their ticket fares then there are possibilities that the customers would opt for that particular airline over British Airways and hence, the management of British Airways will have to continuously track the performance of competitors in the industry. Just like all the companies, British Airways will have to stick to legal policies that are in place. If the organization will have maintain a particular set of documents for record keeping then British Airways will have to maintain it rather than that of being ignorant. If the requirements of the legal policies arent met then the government will be forced to change the management (OLeary 2002). Impact of market structure on the pricing and demand of airline industry The market structure of airline industry is oligopoly in nature. There are few airline companies but all the companies are trying hard to attract and retain the same set of customers. The competition among the companies in the airline industry is very high as they know that they will have to be competitive enough so that they can survive in the market. Each company in the airline industry has the power to decide on the prices at which they would like to offer services but at the same time, the company cannot just randomly set anything that they think is appropriate (Ellis 2011). Talking about the price in oligopolistic market, it is the responsibility of the management to decide on a price that will be accepted by people. If pricing of the company is more than that of the other companies in the industry then all the companies will ultimately boycott the company that has high price. If airway looks for ways to justify the price that they are charging then there are possibilities that the customers would like to be associated with the business. The demand for the airways is also dependent on the market structure. In airlines industry, there are multiple companies which offer the same service and hence, if the customer is not satisfied with the service provided by one of the companies then there are possibilities that they will boycott that particular company and will look for some other company that will meet up with their requirements. The demand for flying is high but there are plenty of companies in the airline industry and hence, the customer may opt for some other competitor (Arnold 2008). Impact of different players and market forces on organizational responses It is responsibility of the management of British Airways to track the different players who are available in the market. Each of the players in the market will come up with some or other creative ways so that they can survive in the market. The management of British Airways will have to look for ways by which they can come up with strategies that are competitive enough to compete against the contenders in the market. The government regulations create a direct impact on the organizational responses of British Airways. British Airways is a government owned airlines and they will have to look for ways by which they can be in line with the requirements of the government. Slight deviation from the government policies may be seen in some private companies but that will create a direct impact on British Airways (Mannion 2011). The continuous improvement in the technology also creates an impact on the changes that create an impact on the organization decisions. With the help of technology, British Airways can help the customers to gain complete knowledge about the products and services that are available with them. This knowledge will help the customers to better choice and hence, their customer satisfaction will improve. There are plenty of internet applications that is helping the passengers to check in through the mobile. The mobile screen can be used as a boarding pass and at the same time, the live status of the flight can also be known to the passengers and also the airlines employees through an internet based application. Before 1995, British Airways was one of the most profitable organizations that were available in the industry but time changed as the number of competitors in the industry increased. After the recession in 1995, the profit margin also reduced as the sales of British Airways reduced. Plenty of low cost operators came into picture and hence, British Airways had to look for ways by which they can reduce the cost and at the same time, they also had to look for services that can justify the price that they are charging (Arnold 2008). Impact of working practices and cultures of different countries on British Airways The management of British Airways tries to maintain a culture that can satisfy all the employees in the organization. At the same time, the satisfaction of the employees shouldnt create an impact on the financial goals of the organization. Cultural training is given to all the employees in the organization so that they can be in sync with each other and at the same time, this training helps the employees to develop an attitude that will motivate them to stay longer with the organization. In the past, all the employees in the organization were wearing a uniform which had a cross in it but now, they know that they have their presence in different countries. People in different parts of the world follow different religions and hence, the have allowed the employees to emboss Sikh symbol or Allah symbol so that they can be connected with their religion. This helped all the employees at the workplace to feel equal (Arlow 2009). All the managers on the floor are motivated to be active in helping the employees. The managers at British Airways are trained to be friendly so that the employees can share their problems and concerns with the management rather than that of creating grape vine in the organization. British Airways believes that grape vine is one of the unhealthiest modes of communication and it should be avoided at any cost and hence, the management is designing its policy accordingly. Training the employees with regards to the attitude that they hold about the organization is one of the things that will decide about the success of the organization. The employees are motivated to understand the expectations of the customers so that change in the policy can be made accordingly. The management ensures that the employment policies of the organization are also changed at regular intervals so that the employees can believe that the management is concerned about the betterment of the employees and not just in making profits. Employees are motivated to express the multi skills that they hold as this helps the employees to be motivated to try new things and at the same time, these employees will stay back with the organization for a longer duration (Moyer 2006). Impact of global changes in British Airways Global changes are creating a direct impact on British Airways. Different organization in different corners is creating an impact on the different policies that prevail. WTO has various policies in places with regards to the airline industry and it is the responsibility of every airway, including British Airways to understand and implement the policies that are decided by WTO. WTO has let down norms regarding the maintenance repair, ticket distribution and franchising. Due to the new policies, British Airways will have to ensure that timely repairs are done to the aircrafts and the repairs with regards to the aircraft maintenance will have to be sent to WTO so that they can be safeguarded from the legal complications that they may face (Graham 2014). If British Airways is planning to give franchising rights to an organization in some country then they will have to ensure that all the WTO policies are fulfilled by the franchisee so that standardization can be maintained in the airlines industry throughout the Open skies policy is in place throughout the airlines industry. The airlines industry is looking for ways by which economies of scale can be achieved and hence, British airways cannot randomly choose timing for their aircraft. They will have to communicate with the officials and take approval from the concerned authority so that they can fly their aircraft. Open skies policy is introduced to avoid air traffic (Caswell 2012). Regulations that impact British Airways Various regulations will create an impact on the policies of British Airways. It is the responsibility of the management of British Airways to ensure that all the policies are in sync with the regulation. Few of the regulations that create a direct impact on the operations of British Airways are discussed below. Federal Trade Commission is in place to ensure that British Airways sticks to the advertising policies. Many companies have started with unethical marketing by way of displaying benefits of services and products which wasnt offered at all. This is when Federal trade commission comes into picture so that companies can follow ethical marketing that will show only the right things to the customers. Employment laws are one thing that changes frequently. It is the responsibility of management to ensure that the British Airways is in sync with the employment laws that is in place. The wages of the employees at British Airways is revised at regular intervals so that the management can be rest assured that they are in sync with the government policy. Apart from paying wages to the existing employees, the organization also ensures that the retirement benefit of the organization is in sync with that of the industry standards. British Airways also strictly adheres to the privacy policy of the company. The privacy follow allows the company to share information with only certain people and British Airways ensures that the right information is available only to the right people. The environmental policy of the company also needs to be followed British Airways. The British Airways will have to keep a track on the carbon footprint that they are creating and accordingly, they will have to plan their usage (Brankin 2011). Conclusion It is very important for British Airways to look for ways by which they can be competitive enough in the market. First and foremost, British Airways should stay ahead in the competition because there are plenty of airways. Even if the customers are slightly disappointed with any of the service that they receive from British Airways, they will look for some other airways. British Airways should develop a strategy wherein the customers are given utmost importance. This will help the customers to be associated with British Airways for a longer time. British Airways is a renowned name in the industry and hence, they can connect themselves with some charity organizations from around the world. These charity organizations will help British Airways to build a reputation in the market. Apart from that, the employees at British Airways should also be motivated to be a part of charity programs. The management should motivate the employees to undertake various charity programs. Pollution created by British Airways is quite high and hence, the management should look for ways to reduce it. The noise pollution created by aircrafts should be reduced by 15% by 2020. Carbon efficiency should be increased by 25% before 2025. Apart from that, the company should also concentrate on recycling so that the organization can be overall termed as an environmental friendly organization (Ledwidge 2007). References Graham, S, 2014, British Airways, Business traveler, Vol. 34, pp. 14-22 Ellis, D, 2011, British Airways, Business traveler, Vol. 12, pp. 3-7 Mannion, M, 2011Business Traveller, pp. 18 Dana, L, 1999,International marketing review, Vol. 16, no. 5, pp. 278-291 Swickard, J, 2003, Adweek, Vol. 23, no. 32, pp. 6 Coppola, V, 2001,Adweek, Vol. 93, no. 6, pp. 32-37 Arlow, R, 2009, Ecclesiastical law journal, Vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 240-247 Otley, T, 2013,Business Traveller, PP. 20 King, L, 2001,Engineering management Journal, Vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 5-13 Prassl, J, 2011,International law journal, Vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 82-91 Segal, S, 2009, Air Finance Journal, Vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 7-9 Eugene, T, 2003, Airways, The british medical journal, Vol. 1, no. 5329, pp. 544-545 OLeary, M, 2002, Reliability Engineering and system safety, Vol. 75, no. 2, pp. 245-255 Harbi, M, 2014,Business Traveller, pp. 26 Arnold, A, 2008,Journal of business Finance Accounting, Vol.15, no. 3, pp. 311 Moyer, K, 2006, Long Range Planning, Vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 172-181 Caswell, M, 2012, Business Traveller, pp. 10 Brankin, A, 2011, American Banker, Vol. 176, no. 180, pp. 12-45 Ledwidge, J, 2007,Human Resource management international digest, Vol. 15, no. 5, pp. 7-10.

Should everyone go to college free essay sample

Some people think it is okay not to go to college. I believe that everyone should attend college. College is an important step in someones life it helps you get the chance to improve in their education. Also college will later help you get a better job, many jobs require a college degree but some jobs so it will be hard to get a job if you dont go to college. Students should be required to college after graduating because college offers new experiences and you get to meet new people there. All students should go to college after they graduate high school because college offers students many new experiences and opportunities, even outside the classroom. There for college offers students many experiences and opportunities . For example according to Ryan Leslie The environment really prepared me to be problem solver giving me the critical thinking skills. This proves my point because Ryan Leslie says that in college he was tough to be a problem solver that gave him critical thinking skills. We will write a custom essay sample on Should everyone go to college or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Another reason why students should go to college after graduating high school is because you meet new people there like mentors who can help you around. There for in college you will meet new people, for example according to Ryan Leslie Seeing the level of passion that many of my classmates had for their special interests encouraged me to follow my own passion for music and entertainment. This proves my point because Ryan Leslie tell us how classmates help you out and encourage you to do your best. However, some students think its okay not to attend college because the job that they want later in life does not require a college degree. On the other hand if you want to get a better job later and get a better payment you should attend college because it will help you learn more about that job and you will meet new people who will help you around . This is why everyone should attend college even if the job they want later in life does not require a college degree. In conclusion, I believe that all student should attend college or get a chance to attend college. There are some many colleges opened for you, if you have a special talent in something there are colleges that can help you in prove in what your talented in. Some jobs dont require a college degree but that does not stop you from going to college and learning more about that particular subject.

15 Names and Descriptions of Effects

15 Names and Descriptions of Effects 15 Names and Descriptions of Effects 15 Names and Descriptions of Effects By Mark Nichol We’ve all heard about one behavioral or scientific effect or another, but perhaps we’re not sure we’re getting the name right, or even that we mean the one we think we do when we name it. Here are the labels of the most ubiquitous of effects and the thesis or the scientific principle underlying each one. 1. Bambi effect: Animals widely perceived as visually appealing will be given more consideration or sympathy than those deemed less attractive. (A rare additional connotation refers to homosexual men who engage in heterosexual behavior.) 2. Butterfly effect: A seemingly inconsequential event or incident can have momentous consequences. 3. Domino effect: Each in a series of events or incidents causes the subsequent phenomena. 4. Doppler effect: A wave’s frequency changes in relation to the relative position of the source or the observer. 5. Greenhouse effect: Heat emanating from a planetary surface will be absorbed and redistributed by atmospheric gases back to the surface or into the atmosphere, resulting in an increase in temperature. 6. Halo effect: The more attractive or appealing a person or other entity is, the more favorably they will be evaluated or the more sympathetically they will be treated. 7. Hawthorne effect: People being observed as part of a study will perform better or otherwise as expected simply because they know they are being studied. 8. Hundredth-monkey effect: A thought or behavior is widely and suddenly distributed through a group once a critical number of members of that group are exposed to the thought or behavior. (This theory is basically valid, but the claim of instantaneous transmission has been discredited.) 9. Mozart effect: Listening to music composed by Mozart temporarily improves performance on mental tasks. (This theory has been distorted to suggest that doing so makes the listener smarter; furthermore, additional studies have concluded that the specific composer or music genre, or whether one listens specifically to music at all, is irrelevant; experiencing anything one enjoys may improve performance.) 10. Placebo effect: Patients given secretly ineffectual or simulated treatment will perceive that their condition has improved, or that it will improve, because they believe the treatment has benefited or will benefit them. 11. Pygmalion effect: The more that is expected of people, the better they will perform. 12. Ripple effect: A single incident or occurrence may have consequences and ramifications beyond the scope of the original phenomenon. 13. Snowball effect: See â€Å"ripple effect.† 14. Streisand effect: Attempts to censor or conceal information lead to increased publicity. 15. Trickle-down effect: A consumer item may initially be affordable only for the affluent, but its price will likely decrease until people of more modest means can afford it (at which time it often becomes less attractive to wealthier people). Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Expressions category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Useful Stock Phrases for Your Business Emails80 Idioms with the Word Time40 Synonyms for Praise

How to Pass the ACT Expert Guide

How to Pass the ACT Expert Guide SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips There’s so much info out there about doing well on the ACT - a lot of it is really helpful when it comes to preparing for the test! But this onslaught of information can get pretty overwhelming, especially when you just want a simple answer to a simple question: how do you pass the ACT? What Does It Mean to â€Å"Pass† the ACT? On this test, there’s only a range of possible scores - what constitutes an excellent, poor, or average score will depend heavily on your frame of reference. Ultimately, what defines a passing ACT score is thatit’s high enough to get you into the colleges you’re applying to. This obviously varies widely by student. Your ACT score doesn’t have to be perfect for you to â€Å"pass† (although it never, ever hurts to bring up your score) - it just has to be good enough. Now, this gets a bit complicated because your ACT score is not the only part of your college applications. If your ACT score is particularly low, however, college admissions officers may have higher expectations for other parts of your app (e.g. GPA, extracurriculars). If your score is low enough, your application may get tossed out even if the rest of your app is strong. For the sake of this post, then, I’m going to define a â€Å"passing† ACT score as one that won’t get your application tossed out. Ideally, however, your ACT score will be one that helps (instead of hurts) your college applications. Keep reading to learn more about how to figure out these score benchmarks for yourself. How to Set an ACT Goal Score Before you learnhow to pass the ACT, you have to figure out what passing means for you. This requiresa bit of legwork: namely, researching what ACT scores are correlated with acceptance at the schools you’re interested in. Here’s how you do it: Make a Preliminary List of Schools This doesn’t have to be a final, polished list, but 8-10 schools you’re interested in is a good place to start. Try to select mostly â€Å"target† schools - colleges where you think you’d have a fairly good chance of getting in. You can include 2-3 â€Å"safety† schools and 2-3 â€Å"reach† schools as well, as long as you maintain balance here. Too many safety schools and you might set a target score that’s too low. Too many reach schools and you might set a target score that’s unreasonably, and discouragingly, high. The first time you do this, you may not have a good idea of what schools you’d identify as reach, target, and safety. That’s ok! In fact, it’s kind of the point of this exercise. You can repeat it as many times as necessary throughout the college process, adjusting your list of schools as you go. Look Up Each School’s ACT Info Start by Googling â€Å"PrepScholar [name of school] ACT score.† The first non-ad link that comes up should be the one you want - see below for an example. The first search result here is the one you want. The page will have the average ACT score and the 25th/75th percentile scores for students accepted to that particular school. Take down these numbers for each school. 25th percentile score = 25% of students at the school have an ACT score at or below that number 75th percentile score = 75% of students at the school have an ACT score at or below that number Students with 75th percentile scores or above for a particular school usually have a good shot at getting in, barring any weaknesses or issues with other parts of their application. Students with 25th percentile scores or below usually have other strong application components (e.g. high GPA, great essays) to boost their chances. Set Your Benchmark â€Å"Passing† Score This step is perhaps a bit more subjective, so I’ll be as transparent here as possible. If you want to come to a passing ACT score, you’ll want to look at a school’s 25th percentile ACT scores. This is far from a safe bet, however - your chances of getting in will heavily depend on the strength of the rest of your application if your ACT score is at or around the 25th percentile. If your GPA is lower than average for a particular school, for example, your ACT score would have to be higher in order to make up for it. I think that the best target (read: ideal) ACT score lies at a school’s 75th percentile score. The 75th percentile is a sweet spot because you’d be more competitive (in terms of ACT scores) than  ¾ of students who are accepted to the school. If your typical ACT score is higher than the 75th percentile score, you might want to consider looking at more competitive schools - you want to aim as high as you reasonably can here (more competitive schools often mean better reputations, which tend to lead to better outcomes). Here’s how to set both ideal and â€Å"passing† ACT score benchmarks for yourself: Take the averages of the scores you collected for each school. First the average of the 25th percentile scores, then the average of the 75th percentile scores. The 25th percentile average is your â€Å"passing† goal score - the minimum you should be aiming for. The 75th percentile score is your target score - the score that has a great chance of getting you accepted to the colleges on your list. What If You’re Worried About Reaching Your Target Score, or Even Your Passing Score? Perhaps these scores you’ve calculated seem higher than you would have expected. If your passing score in particular seems intimidatingly high, there are a few things to keep in mind: Remember that your target score (75th percentile average) is an ideal goal. It’s supposed to be higher than what you’re scoring now (or maybe even what you think you can score). If the 25th percentile benchmark seems too high, consider re-evaluating your list of schools. You might want to look at colleges that are slightly less competitive. Conversely, if you’re already at or above that 75th percentile mark, consider looking at more competitive colleges. Strategies for Passing the ACT I’m going to split this section up into two parts meant for two different types of students: low-scorers and high-scorers. Here, I’m defining score parameters by the national performance standards: high scorers are at about 24 and above (75th percentile nationally), whereas low scorers are at about 16 and below (25th percentile nationally). If your performance is closer to the average (20), check out both sections and follow steps that you find most useful. Your best plan from here will depend on both where you are and where you want to be. How to Pass the ACT: Guidance for Low Scorers One problem that a lot of low-scorers have is that they’re unsure of how to focus their time and energy when studying. Understanding your weaknesses is the first and most important step to tackling ACT prep. The biggest issue for low scorers is often significant gaps in content knowledge, so identifying and filling these gaps is typically a priority for ACT prep. Other mistakes may be due to: Running out of time Misunderstanding the question Running out of time Careless errors So how do you go about identifying where your issues are before taking steps to improve on them? First, you’ll have to invest some time in some serious self-analysis involving a baseline score. You can’t focus on improving before figuring out where you need to improve. Here are best practices for getting a solid baseline and gaining info on your weaknesses: Take a full, timed, diagnostic practice test Take note of which questions you got incorrect Tally the reasons for each incorrect question: Content Gap: Did you not have the information you needed to answer correctly? Timing Issue: Would you have gotten the question correct if you hadn’t run out of time? Question Misunderstanding: Would you have gotten the question correct if the question had been more clear? Careless Error: Would you have gotten the question correct if you had spent an extra couple of seconds checking your work? If you find that content knowledge is your biggest problem, you’ll want to turn to your class notes, textbooks, and ACT prep books for review - not just ACT practice materials. We also have a bunch of ACT content guides to get you started: Ultimate ACT English Study Guide Ultimate ACT Science Study Guide Ultimate ACT Math Study Guide Complete Guide to ACT Writing Once you’ve conquered major content problems, you can hone in on specific content areas and work on careless errors and timing issues. You’ll find tips for addressing those problems in the next section. How to Pass the ACT: Guidance for High Scorers If you’re a relatively high scorer, you probably have a general idea of where your major strengths and weaknesses are on the ACT. You’re likely pretty strong on content overall, unlike the typical low scorer. High scorers usually lose points due to three issues: Carelessness: loss of focus leading to silly mistakes Timing problems: you simply run out of time to give each question its due Content gaps: small areas of knowledge that you haven’t mastered 100% If you want to get close to that ideal score, you’ll want to attack each of these potential issues. I’ll address each of these problems in this section, but you may want to check out our detailed guide for high scorers for more info. Carelessness It’s pretty easy to identify a question you’ve missed due to carelessness. You get that horrible feeling when you recognize that you would have gotten the question right, if only you’d paid a tiny bit more attention. Careless mistakes often occur when students aren’t actively reading. Start focusing your attention with these tips: Double-read each question and underline important words. Take notes on passages. In the math section, mark up diagrams with important info and write out your arithmetic. Double- check your answer before marking it down. Timing Issues Running out of time at the end of sections? First, spend less time on easy questions - just keep an eye out for those careless errors. Next, skip tough questions and come back to them later. This doesn’t mean you shouldn’t guess if you’re out of time (there’s no guessing penalty, so you should definitely guess). If you’ve still got plenty of time to work through the section, though, mark the problem question and come back to it later. Timing issues can stress out pretty much everyone, but with practice, you can learn to overcome them. Filling in Content Gaps Your first task here is identifying which questions you get wrong in your practice, and more importantly, why you get them wrong. This means going over all your mistakes after each practice session. Keep a careful tally of each content area every time you identify an error (hint: most content errors happen on the math section). Use your class notes, textbooks, or reliable ACT prep book to review this content. Come back and do more practice problems in this area until you’re confident in your understanding. What You Must Remember About How to Pass the ACT There might not be an official ACT passing score, but that somehow seems to make things more complicated. What you might consider passing will depend on the sorts of schools you hope to get into, but I hope you think more in terms of target or goal scores than just â€Å"good enough† scores. If you’re worried that your ACT scores aren’t up to par, don’t worry just yet - there are tons of things you can do to bring them up, no matter where you might be on the percentile charts. What matters most when setting a passing score are the goals you set for yourself. What’s Next? There are a lot of helpful materials available if you’re worried about â€Å"passing† the ACT. For an overview, read our guide with the four best tips for studying for the test. If you need a fun, refreshing way to study, learn about the five best ACT prep games. Maybe you’re looking for more detailed information. If that’s the case, check out our 10-step ACT study plan. Want to improve your ACT score by 4 points? Check out our best-in-class online ACT prep program. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your ACT score by 4 points or more. Our program is entirely online, and it customizes your prep program to your strengths and weaknesses. We also have expert instructors who can grade every one of your practice ACT essays, giving feedback on how to improve your score. Check out our 5-day free trial:

Management Brief Essay Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The CEO Management - Research Paper Example Only a few decades ago, the people at the top of companies were called Managing Directors, now they have morphed into C.E.Os, and are expected to perform on a global stage. There is relentless scrutiny on what they do from shareholders, media and government (Tarpin 2006, p56). The change in the environment in which CEOs have to perform has necessitated a re-think of the whole experience of management and all the tenets that go into the successful running of a corporation. Among these are the decision-making process, managing information technology and picking up good examples from others and integrating them within the organization. In an age with so many pressures, is it realistic to have one person to be the face of a company or the one making all the decisions? There is no clear answer to this question. Different approaches have to be applied. In recent times, organizations have become ‘too big to fail’ it is unrealistic that all the important decisions must be made b y a single individual. It should be the case that an organization has several other people in its middle and upper ranks who are as knowledgeable as the leader of the organization so as to spread the burden of decision making. One of the renowned investors of worldwide, Warren Buffett once said that ‘every quarter a CEO is expected to land a 747 on a runway and have it come naturally to a stop six inches from a dime’. That is enough to demonstrate the high expectations CEOs are expected to fulfill. On the other hand, the case for iconic organizations being led by iconic individuals cannot be disputed. Steve Jobs is a good example. He alone is credited with making Apple the largest consumer electronic goods manufacturer. Ken Hopper in his book The Puritan Gift states that decisions are best made collectively. He refers to the collectivization of decision making as forming a kind of ‘fellowship’. The leader makes the ultimate call, but they have to come down and seek the opinion of members of the ‘fellowship’ before arriving at the final solution. (Hopper 2005, p64) As a result, organizations need no more be pyramidic structures but more of networks. The leader at the top of an organization does not have to be accountable for all the good and all the bad of the organization. Leaders should use the collective wisdom of the company, and even be ready to admit they do not know what a situation demands. They should collectively think and collectively approach an issue (Schermerhorn 2004, p40). This is a concept that traditional management could run a mile from, but as recent failure has shown us, new and radical approaches to management need to be explored. The decision-making process is not the only aspect of management that a leader of an organization engages. In today’s computer age, there is a torrent of information, all of which is demanding the organization’s leader attention. Vast organizations are being bu ilt on information to the extent that a few individuals view it as a currency or as a building block for a new economy. So, is too much information a promise or a threat? Well, that is part of what the leader of the organization has to determine. The catchphrase ‘information technology’ has really caught on, but it’s a fairly recent phenomenon.

Comparing and contrasting Adult Fans Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Comparing and contrasting Adult Fans - Essay Example That is why I call it an obsession with an activity/ even in ones life. Different people have different hobbies depending on a wide array of factors. While some love playing video games on their computers, others like listening to music, others still find reading romantic novels their most preferred activity and so on. Ask anyone what they do regularly in their lives and you will be fascinated at the varied answers you will receive, these are their hobbies. Several factors influence the liking of such hobbies in different people. Such include, social class, level of education, peer types, environment, age, sex, occupation, etc. Hobbies are mostly done during leisure hours, some people however find it necessary to allocate some time at least in between their core duties to fit in some time for their hobbies. To this extent therefore, we can argue that different people have different levels of fanaticism for different hobbies. In this paper, I will look at the various factors which inf luence the choice of hobbies in adult population of LEGO and bronies. Hobbies tend to change considerably from childhood to adulthood. Children seem to like playing while in the ages of between 2- 5 years. Playing different soft games which do not involve a lot of brain work such as computer games, biking, etc. depending on their social classes dominates their lives and forms their hobbies. These hobbies tend to be common to both boys and girls in the same cultural setting. Such hobbies however changes as the children grow into adulthood. At about 10 and 15 years the teenage boys and girls get interested in totally different activities in all cultural diversities of the world. Moreover, more changes occur above this age as the teenagers graduate to young adults. Several factors play jointly to facilitate these changes. Such factors are varied and include the changes in lifestyles and places of residents with new friends and environments which come about with totally different

-Operation and Supply Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

-Operation and Supply Management - Essay Example Six Sigma is a systematic approach that enables working in an organized manner. Six sigma is a path way to implementing Total Quality Management in the organization. Definition of roles and responsibilities is an important feature of six sigma; the definition helps in a great way approaching various tasks. The roles are defined in a specialized manner according to the need of every organization, and it ensures assigning the right job to the right person. The roles are named after martial art ranking namely black belt, green belt and yellow belt along with champions and team leads. Based on the level of achievement these three categories are placed in a chronological order. As would the ranking imply, black belts are the leaders in the front tier who are directly associated with process definition and improvement initiatives .Green belts provide support and assistance to the black belts .Yellow belts are relatively novice and help facilitating the green belts and black belts. The definition of roles and responsibilities help in dividing the task and channelizing it according to the need. Leaders at the top level provide guidelines and help providing direction. Champions constitute the middle management and other concerned officials who are directly involved in taking on an endeavor (Pries, 2006). Team members are essential part of six sigma roles, and they make up for the backbone of any process performed under the considerations of six sigma approach. Six sigma puts equal onus on all of the above mentioned and in such an environment each of the individual is expected to work to their capabilities. A simple solution to obtaining productive results is simply sticking to the basic principles of quality management system which are coherent with six sigma approach. An important characteristic of six sigma approach is the encouragement to participate .Participation allows introduction of new ideas in the organization which in return provides options for

Artificial Intelligence In Military Application Information Technology Essay

Artificial Intelligence In Military Application Information Technology Essay Since the dawn of civilizations, humans have endeavored to be in control of their environments and surroundings. This quest resulted in many discoveries and inventions, most notably among them are machines. Human used machines as an aid to make ones life comfortable, effective and efficient and aimed to develop machines capable of working like human beings, if possible. Computer is one of the most important machines which has not only raised hopes in this regard but has also contributed significantly in every sphere of human endeavor. Human approach to problem solving is one of its kinds. It is based on abstract thought, logic, reasoning and recognizing of pattern. Computers and humans are different. A computer is yet to understand all situations and simultaneously adapt to an evolving situations. The military systems including weapons will be smart; too fast, too small, too many, and will create a complex environment for humans to monitor, control and direct them. Information-based systems will lead to a data overload that will make it a challenge for humans to directly intervene in decision making. Weapons and other military systems already under development will function at increasingly higher levels of complexity and responsibility, without meaningful human intervention and control. In future military conflicts, norm of engagement will be to act rapidly. The military architectures of tomorrow will consist of a new array of sea, ground and space based sensors, unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAV), and missile defence technologies. These will take advantage of directed energy weapons. Military forces will be both faster and agile. Opponents will take advantage by operating faster than a defender can observe, orient, decide how to respond and act on that decision. The attacker will thus place himself inside the defenders Observe, Orient, Decide and Act (OODA) loop, destroying an adversarys ability to conduct an active defence  [1]  . To execute the OODA process faster than the enemy is at the core concept of future digital and information warfare. Automated systems, assisted by artificial intelligence in some form or the other, may be a way out for this problem. The advances gained in the field of artificial intelligence technology can be utilized by unmanned systems to be able to assess operational and tactical situations and decide an appropriate action. Information will drive success of command and control. These systems will collect data, have the ability to analyze data and provide recommendations to the commander. The difference between providing a recommendation and acting on a recommendation may be only a software twist. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the branch of computer science focusing on creating machines that can engage on behaviour that humans consider intelligent. AI aims to improve machine behaviour in tackling complex tasks. Smart machines have now become a reality and researchers are creating systems which can mimic human thought, understand speech, beat the best human chess player, and achieve many other advantages. With the introduction of web-enabled infrastructure rapid developments have been made in the application of Artificial Intelligence techniques in the recent past. AI is the key technology in many of todays applications in all field including military. AI methodologies are being applied to support decision making at all levels of military operations such as assessment of force readiness, reliability and capability, complex missions planning and integration of data from multiple sources  [2]  . Research in the field of AI is also addressing the challenges presented by supporting such decision making in rapidly changing environments. The use of such technology opens up endless possibilities in the military. This paper aims to trace the contours of AI, examine current efforts to utilise Artificial Intelligence and explore its potential applications in military. Genesis and Recent Past   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚   The first Electronics computer was developed in 1941; however, the field of AI research was formally founded at a conference at Dartmouth College in 1956 only. Early work in AI focused on using cognitive and biological models to simulate and explain human information processing skills. In the 1990s and early 21st century, AI achieved its greatest successes. AI has advanced rapidly in the past decade. This happened due to greater use of the scientific method in experimenting with and comparing approaches that systematises and automates intellectual tasks. Thus it is relevant to any sphere of intellectual activities of human. The success can be attributed to the incredible power of modern computers, a greater emphasis on solving specific sub-problems, the creation of new ties between AI and other fields working on similar problems. AI is seen and perceived by different people or groups of people differently. The definitions of artificial intelligence can be broadly put into two approaches: one centred around humans and other centred on rationality  [3]  . The human centred approach must be an empirical science involving hypothesis and experimental confirmation while a rationalist approach involves a combination of mathematics and engineering. There have been efforts to introduce new creative approaches and refine the best one. Recent progress in understanding the theoretical basis for intelligence has gone hand in hand with improvements in the capabilities of real systems. Various subfields of AI have become more integrated. AI has found some common ground with other disciplines. A better understanding of the problems and their complex properties, combined with increased mathematical sophistication has led to workable research agendas. Fields of AI In AI the problem of intelligence simulation is generally divided into a number of specific sub-problems. These consist of particular capabilities that researchers like an intelligent system to display. For difficult problems, most of the algorithms require large computational resources and the amount of memory or computer time required become very high. With rapid strides in computer technology, research and utilization, the field of AI witnessed new frontiers. Russell and Norvig explains, AI encompasses a large variety of subfields ranging from general purpose area such as learning and perception to such specific tasks as playing chess, proving mathematical theorems, writing poetry, and diagnosing diseases. AI systematises and automates intellectual tasks and is therefore potentially relevant to any sphere of human intellectual activity. In a sense, it is a truly universal field  [4]  The various fields and subfields that received more attention in order to solve larger problem s are: Learning The centrality of learning was discussed by Turing in 1950. From the beginning itself machine learning has been central to AI research. The ability to find a pattern in a stream of input is called unsupervised learning where as supervised learning includes classification and numerical regression both. Classification is used to determine what category something belongs in. This is done after seeing a number of examples of things from several categories. Regression takes a set of numerical input and output examples and attempts to discover a continuous function that would generate the outputs from the inputs. In case of reinforcement learning, the agent is rewarded or punished based on good or bad responses. Natural Language Processing It gives machines the ability to read and understand the languages spoken by human beings. Text mining and machine translation are example of some basic applications of natural language processing. Perception Perception provides agents with information about the world in which they exist. Perception is initiated by sensors. Machine perception is the ability to use input from various sensors such as cameras, microphones, sonar etc to deduce aspects of the world. Computer vision is the ability to analyse visual input. Facial recognition, object recognition and speech recognition are some of the selected sub-problems Social Intelligence In order to obtain social intelligence capability, Artificial intelligence has to establish able human interaction and also possess the emotions that people have during their everyday lives. Social skills and emotion play two important roles for an intelligent agent. First, it should be able to foresee the actions of others, by knowing their motives and state of emotions. This involves elements of game theory, decision theory, as well as the ability to model human emotions and also the perceptual skills to detect emotions. Also, it is expected that for good human-computer interaction, emotions need to be displayed by an intelligent machine also. It must appear polite and sensitive to the humans it interacts with. At best, it should have normal emotions and at least it should appear polite. Creativity Artificial Intelligence that deals with the development and exploration of systems that exhibit creativity. It includes systems capable of such things as scientific invention, visual artistry, music composition and story generation etc. A section of AI addresses creativity both theoretically from a psychological perspective and practically via specific implementations of systems that generate outputs that can be considered creative. Artificial Intuition and Artificial Imagination are the areas related with computational research. General Intelligence Many of the researchers hope that their work will finally be included into a machine with general intelligence, combining all the other skills and exceeding human abilities at most of them. Knowledge Representation knowledge representation is one of the important and most familiar concepts in AI. Most of the problems that machines are expected to solve will require extensive knowledge about the world. Among the things that AI needs to represent are objects, properties, categories and relations between objects, situations, events, states and time, causes and effects, and many other less well researched domains. Knowledge representation and knowledge engineering are central to AI research Planning Planning are the subfields of AI devoted to finding action sequences that achieve the agents goals. Intelligent agents should be able to lay down goals and accomplish them. They need a way to imagine the future and be able to select choices that maximize the value of the available choices. They should have a representation of the state of the world and be able to make predictions about how their actions will change it. Multi-agent planning uses the cooperation and competition of many agents to achieve a given goal. Tools Used to Solve Problems of AI In the course of years of research, AI has developed a large number of tools to solve the difficult problems in computer science. A few of the most common of these methods are mentioned: Search and Optimisation Search is the subfield of AI devoted to finding action sequences that achieve the agents goal. Several problems in AI can be solved in theory by intelligently searching through many possible solutions. Reasoning can be reduced to simply perform a search operation. Planning algorithms search through trees of goals and sub-goals, attempting to find a path to a target goal. This process is called means-ends analysis. Robotics algorithms for moving limbs and grasping objects use local searches in configuration space. Several learning algorithms use search algorithms based on optimization. In case of most of the real world problems, simple exhaustive searches are rarely sufficient. Therefore, heuristics supply the program with a best guess for the path on which the solution lies on.   Also in case of many problems, it is possible to begin the search with some form of a guess and then incrementally refine the guess until no more refinements can be made. Logic Logic is the primary vehicle for representing knowledge. It is used for knowledge representation and problem solving. However, it can be applied to other problems also. AI uses several different forms of logic research. Propositional or sentential logic is the logic of statements which can be true or false. There is well developed technology for reasoning in proportional logic First-order logic also permits the use of quantifiers and predicates. It can express details about objects, their properties, and their relations with each other. Fuzzy logic is a version of first-order logic. It allows the truth of a statement to be represented as a value between 0 and 1, rather than simply True or False. Fuzzy systems have been widely used in modern industrial and consumer product control systems and can be used for uncertain reasoning. Several extensions of logic have been intended to handle many domains of knowledge. Other forms of logic designed to help with default reasoning and the qualification problem include default logics, non-monotonic logics and circumscription Probabilistic Methods For Uncertain Reasoning A large number of problems in AI such as learning, reasoning, planning, perception and robotics call for the agent to operate either with uncertain or incomplete information. A number of powerful tools using methods from probability theory and economics have devised by AI researchers to solve these problems. Bayesian networks are a very common tool that can be used for a large number of problems likes learning, reasoning, planning and perception etc. Probabilistic algorithms can also be used for filtering, prediction and finding explanations for streams of data, helping perception systems to analyse processes that occur over time. Mathematical tools have been developed that analyse how an agent can make choices and plan, using decision theory, decision analysis, information value theory. Classifiers and Statistical Learning Methods Classifiers and Controllers are two types of AI applications. Classification forms a central part of many AI systems however, controllers do also classify conditions before inferring actions. Classifiers are functions that make use of pattern matching to determine a closest match. They can be tuned as per examples, making them very attractive for use in AI. These examples are known as patterns or observations. Each pattern belongs to a certain predefined class in case of supervised learning. All the observations combined with their class labels are known as a data set. When a new observation is received, that observation is classified based on earlier experience. A classifier can be trained in many ways. Neural networks A neuron is a cell in the brain whose principal function is the collection, processing, and dissemination of electrical signals. The brains image processing capacity is considered to emerge mainly from network of neurons. A neural network is an interconnected group of nodes, similar to the large network of neurons in the human brain. Neural networks are designed to distinguish patterns in data and forecast an output from a given set of data. Neural networks need to be trained on the data before it can predict or learn. In this way they learn from examples similar to the way a child learns. Computer learning skills that are developed for neural networks are used in a class of computer programs called expert systems. Expert systems also learn from experience and get better at their job, the longer they are doing it. Control Theory Control theory is the foundation of AI and deals with designing devices that act optimally on the basis of feedback from the environment. Initially, the mathematical tools of control theory were quite different from AI, but the fields are coming closer together. Control theory, has many important applications, especially in robotics. Languages AI researchers have developed several specialized languages for AI research, including Lisp and Prolog. In AI, the automation or programming of all aspects of human cognition is considered from its foundations in cognitive science through approaches to symbolic and sub-symbolic AI, natural language processing, computer vision, and evolutionary or adaptive systems. It is inherent to this very complex problem domain that in the initial phase of programming a speci ¬Ã‚ c AI problem, it can only be speci ¬Ã‚ ed poorly. Only through interactive and incremental re ¬Ã‚ nement does more precise speci ¬Ã‚ cation become possible. This is also due to the fact that typical AI problems tend to be very domain speci ¬Ã‚ c therefore, heuristic strategies have to be developed.. Applications of AI General The probable applications of Artificial Intelligence are plenty. Application of AI is possible in all fields, requiring intelligent analysis, precision and automation. They stretch from the military to the entertainment industry, to big establishments dealing with large amount of information such as banks, hospital and insurances. AI can also be used to predict customer behavior and detect the trends. There are many general fields where AI can be very usefully utilized for Autonomous planning and Scheduling, Autonomous Control, Medical Diagnosis, Logistics Planning, and Language Understanding, Problem Solving, Game Playing  [5]  . Some of the important applications are appended below: Pattern Recognition Pattern recognition is the area of research that studies the operation and design of systems that identify patterns in data. When a program makes observations of some kind, it is often programmed to compare what it sees with pattern e.g face, fingerprint or handwriting recognition. Important application areas are image analysis, character recognition, speech analysis, man and machine diagnostics and person identification. Bio-Informatics Bioinformatics is the application of computer technology for the management of biological information. AI provides several powerful algorithms and techniques for solving important problems in bioinformatics. Approaches like Neural Networks, Hidden Markov Models, Bayesian Networks and Kernel Methods are ideal for areas with more data but very less theory. The goal in applying AI to bioinformatics is to extract useful information from the wealth of available data by building good probabilistic models. Data Mining An AI powered tool that can discover useful information within a database that can then be used to improve actions. Data mining  is the process of extracting patterns from  data. Data mining is seen as an increasingly important tool by modern business to transform data into business intelligence giving an informational advantage. It is currently used in a wide range of profiling practices such as marketing,  surveillance,  fraud  detection, and scientific discovery. Expert Systems An expert system is a computer program that represents the reason with knowledge of some specialist subject with a view to solve problems or give advice  [6]  . It is the knowledge-based applications of artificial intelligence that have enhanced productivity in almost all fields such as business, science, engineering, and the military. With advances in the last decade, todays expert systems clients can choose from dozens of commercial software packages with easy-to-use interfaces. Diagnosis and Trouble-shooting explain the development and testing of a condition-monitoring sub-module of an integrated plant maintenance management application based on AI techniques. It is mainly knowledge-based systems, having several modules, sub-modules and sections. Computer Vision It is essential for computer to perceive the objects. Vision includes the acquisition and processing of visual information both. AI enabled technologies have made possible many amazing achievements. Vehicles that are able to steer themselves safely along highways, and computers that can recognize and interpret speech or facial expressions. AI supported vision technology has made many applications possible. Some of them are like 3D modeling, image stabilization, image synthesis, surgical navigation, handwritten document recognition, and vision based computer interfaces. While explaining success of an autonomous system trial supported by computer vision Russel and Norvig mentioned: The ALVIN computer vision system was trained to steer a car to keep it following a lane.   It was tried in the Carnegie Melon University (CMU) NAVLAB computer controlled minivan and used to navigate across the United States for 2850 miles it was in control of steering the vehicle 98% of the time. A human took over the other 2% mostly at the exit ramps. NAVLAB has video cameras that transmit road images to ALVIN, which then computes the best direction to steer, based on experience from previous training runs.  [7]   Image Processing Perception appears to be an effortless activity for humans however, it requires significant amount of sophisticated computation. The team associated with image formation and processing is concerned with research issues related to the acquisition, manipulation, and synthesis and distribution of images. In AI, applications include video phone, video conferencing, teleconferencing, and multimedia databases. Progressively, this research has combined image or vision with audio or speech. For example in the video indexing project, the group is using both visual and audio cues to derive semantic labels for video shots. Robotics Robots are physical agents that perform tasks by manipulating the physical world. Robots are comprised of several systems working together as a whole. Robots are widely used in assembly plants, space stations, and hospitals and now in homes also. Other type of mobile robots includes unmanned land vehicle, unmanned aerial vehicles and autonomous underwater vehicle. Knowledge Representation and Reasoning The representation of knowledge and the reasoning processes that bring knowledge to life are the two concepts, central to the field of AI. The knowledge representation means encoding real world, commonsense etc in a format that is both readable and understandable by the computer. Logical Agents is the representation of knowledge and the reasoning processes that bring knowledge to life. Logic is the primary vehicle for representing the knowledge throughout and Semantic webs describe things in a way that computer applications understand. Gaming Game playing was one of the first tasks taken by AI. Games, unlike other problems, are interesting because they are too difficult to solve. Games like the real world require the ability to make some decisions even when calculating the optimal decision is not feasible. Games also penalize inefficiency severely. Game playing research has contributed in many ideas on how to make best possible use of time. AI techniques are used in computer and video games to produce the illusion of intelligence in the behaviour of non-player characters. The techniques used typically draw upon existing methods from fields that include control theory, robotics etc. IBMs Deep Blue became the first computer programme to defeat the world champion in a chess match when it performed better than Garry Kasparov in an exhibition match. Military Applications The military applications of Artificial Intelligence are spread over large areas of military functions. Some of the military functions where AI techniques are being used or have potential use are given below. Operations Command and Control Command and Control is considered as one of the most important functions of military operations. In a networked centered scenario of battlefield with host of sensors deployed at different stages and the amount of data flowing between various centres, the time available for decision making is at premium. The information overload sometimes can impair the decision making hence require intelligent filtering of information to take timely and appropriate decisions. AI is used in playing a decisive role in reducing the load on the human beings in the loop and at times taking autonomous decisions as and when warranted. Navigation The availability of Global Positioning Satellites (GPS), Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) and autopilot along with host of sensors and On-board computers has helped in overcoming certain human limitations and resulted in safe and efficient management of flying aircrafts. ISR Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance are the key elements of battlefield management. Over time the battlefield scenario has undergone dramatic change and so as the means of identification, surveillance and reconnaissance. Advancement in technology in many spheres has offered sensors with high sensitivity, small sizes and better visibility. AI has contributed significantly in this regard in terms of ground, aerial, space and underwater ISR capabilities.   Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) using AI offer tremendous potential as intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance platforms for early detection of security threats and for acquisition and maintenance of situational awareness in the crisis condition. Using their capabilities effectively requires addressing a range of practical and theoretical problems. Developments in the field of hardware and software technologies, as well as economies of scale, make UAVs feasible for increasingly diverse airborne observation mission s. Expert systems are promising technologies that manage information demands and provide required expertise. Thus they are well suited to many of the tasks associated with environmental impact assessment. While highlighting the contribution of artificial intelligence in battlefield surveillance using geographical information system, Maj Jagmohan Singh of Project Management organization, Battlefield surveillance system , Army HQ concludes: Transparency of the battlefield is a critical factor influencing the outcome of future battles. Battlefield transparency would provide a framework for `scientific and deliberate decision making. The dependence of commanders on paper maps and sand models for operational planning will have to be replaced by the latest GIS tools. These tools permit dynamic visualization of a 3D terrain model for seamless access, query and analysis across multiple types of military geographical data. Mapping and analysis is done using various GIS technologies incorporating satellites and aerial imagery, and photography of the target area. The future technologies would further enhance the visualization techniques and enable the commanders to take timely decisions to defeat the adversaries. However, emphasis needs to focus on refinement of some critical technologies such as Multi Sensor Data Fusion (MSDF), Artificial Intelligence and Interoperability issues.   [8]   Weapon System The weapon technology has seen constant change and has gained more lethality and effectiveness in its evolution. A host of modern weapons are in use or in process of development which can change the landscape of the battlefield. Missiles, Directed energy weapons, Standoff weapons, autonomous weapons etc are few examples of intelligent weapons and have even greater potential in future. Communications and Computers Communication is the core of all activities. In the age of modern communication, the geographical boundaries have come closer and visibility has improved to a great extent. The advent of satellite and availability of internet has revolutionized the communication. In future the success of battlefield will depend on maintenance of network connectivity and management of information from a large variety of sources. This will also made real time communication more important. The non availability of real time information can hamper the decision making ability of soldiers fighting the war. It may result in the failure of mission and even danger to personal survival. Wren, Ichalkaranje and Jain commented on the contribution and maturity of AI: Intelligent Decision Support Systems have the potential to transform human decision making by combining research in artificial intelligence, information technology, and systems engineering. The field of intelligent decision making is expanding rapidly partly due to advances in artificial intelligence and network-centric environments that can deliver the technology. Communication and coordination between dispersed systems can deliver just-in-time information, real-time processing, collaborative environments, and globally up-to-date information to a human decision maker. At the same time, artificial intelligence techniques have demonstrated that they have matured sufficiently to provide computational assistance to humans in practical applications.  [9]   Network centric environment facilitates leveraging Artificial Intelligence to allow soldiers to access and share information throughout the entire network. Network centric environment provides coordination, where each node in the network helps provide a flawless, decentralized organization of intelligent resources. Maintenance Repair and Overhaul The fighting capability of the forces depends upon the serviceability and availability of the range of equipment held in its inventory. Most of the modern days equipments used for military application have certain defined life span. Also the demand of battlefield has ensured that highly sophisticated equipments should be made available for combat. This demands a system with quick fault diagnostic capability, easy maintainability and highly trained human resources along with modern ground facilities. Presently the expert systems are in use to analyze the faulty Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) of Radars or aircraft avionics using Automatic Test Equipments (ATE). Built-in Test systems are encouragingly being used with modern development of weapons. The techniques such as expert system and robotics are fairly in use in military application however has the potential to be exploited at much greater scale to expedite automation. Logistics Logistics is the life line in case of military operations. The various models of operations research have been employed in effective management of the logistics operation. The system of simulation has helped in optimizing the operation and AI has a great potential in assisting in planning and keeping the supply chain effective and efficient. Russell and Norvig highlighted that: During the Persian Gulf crisis of 1991, US forces deployed a Dynamic Analysis and Replanning Tool (DART) to do automated logistics planning and scheduling for transportation. This involved up to 50000 vehicles, cargo and people at a time and had to account for starting point, destinations, routes, and conflict resolution among all parameters. The AI planning techniques allowed a plan to be generated in hours that would have taken weeks with older methods. The Defence Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) stated that this single application more than paid back its 30 year inv

Sport Psychology Essay -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To fully understand sport psychology, we must ask ourselves two very important questions, first, what is sport psychology and second, who is it for? Put in the most sim-ple way, sport psychology can be an example of psychological knowledge, principles, or methods applied to the world of sport. "Two psychologists, Bunker and Maguire, say sport psychology is not for psychologists, but is for sport and its participants." (Murphy & White, 1978:2) However, it can be argued that sport psychology, can be for psycho-logy, just as it can be for sports scientists, managers, teachers, administrators, coaches and last but by no means least, the athletes themselves.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is sport psychology that has stood apart from the discipline of psychology as a whole. "Its history is different, its concerns are often different, its centres of learning and teaching are often different, and its professional training is different." (Garfield, 1984:34) Yet despite this, sport psychology remains permanently bonded to psychology through its common interest in the fundamental principles of psychology, human behavior, and experience.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  No one can deny the significant role which sport and recreation plays in every cul-ture and society across the globe. In the western and eastern worlds alike, sport and lei-sure continue to support huge industries and take up massive amounts of individual time, effort, money, energy, and emotion. Within the media, competitive sport has gotten enor-mous attention and despite this, the public's appetite for more sport never is stated. "It has been estimated that around two thirds of all newspaper readers in Great Britain first turn to the sports pages when they pick up their daily paper." (Butt, 1987:65) When one con-siders the number of people who actually engage in sport or even take regular exercise, then the significance of sport to all our lives cannot be denied.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A common problem with sport psychology research lies in its somewhat myopic or short-sighted appreciation of present day accumulated psychological knowledge. As we look into sport psychology, we are confronted by a landscape of knowledge which rises and falls often suddenly and dramatically. "At certain times, massive peaks of understand-ing rise up before out eyes yet at other times, huge tracts of psychology remain untouched to the horizon." (Garfie... ...d of sport, something that cannot be ignored with the growing number in athletic participation by young people. "With each new year comes an increase in new developments dealing with sport psychology." (Murphy & White, 1978:9) However, there is still much work to be done in sport psychology. There are still many unresolved questions and even some new questions and even some new questions that have arisen over the years dealing with sport psychology. Take anxiety for instance. Psychologists have found ways to reduce anxiety but not eliminate it. Maybe there is no way to eliminate it since everyone has it. Another example is aggression. Wherever there are sports, there is aggression. Psychologists have stated that sports are a way for people to release their aggression. However, they still have not been able to fully eliminate the violence in sports. Psychologists are also working on new methods for motivating athletes because some athletes are harder to motivate that others. Even though there are these unresolved issues in sport psychology, the future of psychology in sports, especially youth sports, looks to be on a very progressive track with many new discoveries.

Technical Writing, Project Specification Plan

Project Specification plan Sign-off sheet Name and Job title| Involvement in the project| Signature | Sharon Shameful,Chief Executive| -Signs off the project as a whole-Authorisation of interviews-Signs of on new project proposals| | Nathan SafeHuman Resources | -Hires new staff & also responsible for their interviews-Hires the technical writer-In charge of keeping up to date with staff reviews and reporting to management| | Money Penny Chief Financial Officer| -Signs off financial implications of the new policies and processes. Will provide financial background on health and safety training of staff. | | Mathew HandymanHealth & Safety officer & temporary Maintenance manager| -Signs off on the health and safety implications of the new policies and processes-Checks that proper health and safety procedure is implemented by all staff. -In charge of maintenance of all machinery and also trains new staff in using these. | | Hayden StarStaff Supervisor| -Supervisor ground staff-Interview n ew staff alongside human resource manager-Trains new staff in machinery| |Purpose The purpose of this documentation project is to come up with a new, improved process to prevent any future accidents involving dangerous equipment and providing employees with improved policies with proper health and safety procedure to prevent these accidents. The deliverables are: * A description of the new process, written up as business proposal, which will include a swim lane diagram illustrating who does what, at which level. * Dangerous Equipment use policy. * Procedures or instructions for one of the employees.The purpose of the documentation will be revised at daily meetings with the project manager, Nathan Safe. Definition of Audience Document| Audience | Audience Description| Business Proposal for training new staff and existing employees in the safe use of equipment| Management team| Has a good knowledge of finances and council operation as well as health and safety in relations to dangerou s equipment| Dangerous equipment use policy| All Employees| Ground knowledge of all equipment. Some already experienced in use of dangerous equipments. Are motivated to learn more after what has happened to a staff member. Procedure for Health and Safety and Maintenance officer| Mathew Handyman| Knows all about the machinery on hand and also their safety policies, but needs to be more proactive. | Note 1. Bruce alongside with his supervisor Hayden and 2 other colleagues will be available throughout the project for user testing Relationship of these documents to others The new documentation will replace the outdated Dangerous equipment use policy that has proved to be ineffective. The new policy and procedures must: * Follow proper health and safety codes set by ACC Fit with the councils financial budget * Fit with local councils general health and safety policies Production Information The business proposal will be presented in both electronic and paper form. The electronic copy wil l be make it easy for new additions. The proposal will consist of 2 – 3 pages and will also include at least one swim-lane diagram (in colour). The dangerous equipment use policy will be delivered as one page printed document. This will be handed out to all ground staff and also copies will be posted in the staff room in the maintenance shed.Intranet file will also be available to staff via the council network. Procedures will be only handed to one employee who will have to include this in action daily. Writers requirement Project will be mainly carried out on the premises of Maurati local council. Finalising and part of the writing will be done at the technical writers home office. During the project, the council will provide the technical writer, * Access to meeting rooms for interviews * Access to relevant documents * Access to scanner Admin will be assisting with all the printing and scanning.Originals will be printed by the technical writer at his preferred printing pres s. Nathan Safe, Money Penny, Mathew Handyman and Hayden Star will all be available for interviews during business hours. Sharon who is currently busy with the local gala will only be available on Friday. Ground staff will be available during their posted times, however, this will only be during their lunch hours. Free lunch vouchers will be handed at each interviews to all ground staff for taking time of their lunch to come for an interview.The technical writer will report all interview of staff to Nathan Safe. Schedules and Milestones Project Stage| Tentative time of Completion | Initial Research * Informal talk with Staff * Relevant document investigations * Scheduling with SMEs| 15 May 2012| Development of the project * Actual interviews conducted * Rough swim-lane diagram | 16-18 May 2012| Draft proposal complete| 20 May 2012| Draft Policy and procedure documents complete| 23 May 2012| Feedback on proposal and policy draftsTesting of procedure draft| 24 May 2012| Revising & Edit ing| 25 May 2012|Documentation Completed| 4 June 2012| Constraints Delays will be inevitable. Budget Technical writer’s work | Cost| Researching – 10 hours| $60 x 10= $600| Drafting Stage| $60 x 5= $300| Interview Staff and facilitating user-testing (vouchers will be provided free for charge to interviewees)| $60 x10= $600| Training Individual on Procedure| $60 x 10 =$600| Revising & Polishing – 10 hours| $60 x 10 =$600| Printing & Disbursement (standard) | $250| Total| $2,950 + GST|